link to page 1
Mask use in the context of COVID-19
Interim guidance
1 December 2020
This document, which is an update of the guidance published
patients wear the following types of mask/respirator in
on 5 June 2020, includes new scientific evidence relevant to
addition to other personal protective equipment that are
the use of masks for reducing the spread of SARS-CoV-2, the
part of standard, droplet and contact precautions:
virus that causes COVID-19, and practical considerations. It
medical mask in the absence of aerosol
contains updated evidence and guidance on the following:
generating procedures (AGPs)
• mask management;
respirator, N95 or FFP2 or FFP3 standards, or
• SARS-CoV-2 transmission;
equivalent in care settings for COVID-19
• masking in health facilities in areas with community,
patients where AGPs are performed; these may
cluster and sporadic transmission;
be used by health workers when providing care
• mask use by the public in areas with community and
to COVID-19 patients in other settings if they
cluster transmission;
are widely available and if costs is not an issue.
• alternatives to non-medical masks for the public;
• In areas of known or suspected community or cluster
• exhalation valves on respirators and non-medical masks;
SARS-CoV-2 transmission WHO advises the following:
• mask use during vigorous intensity physical activity;
universal masking for all persons (staff, patients,
• essential parameters to be considered when
visitors, service providers and others) within the
manufacturing non-medical masks (Annex).
health facility (including primary, secondary
and tertiary care levels; outpatient care; and
Key points
long-term care facilities)
wearing of masks by inpatients when physical
• The World Health Organization (WHO) advises the use
distancing of at least 1 metre cannot be
of masks as part of a comprehensive package of
maintained or when patients are outside of their
prevention and control measures to limit the spread of
care areas.
SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. A mask
•
In areas of known or suspected sporadic SARS-CoV-2
alone, even when it is used correctly, is insufficient to
transmission, health workers working in clinical areas
provide adequate protection or source control. Other
where patients are present should continuously wear a
infection prevention and control (IPC) measures include
medical mask. This is known as targeted continuous
hand hygiene, physical distancing of at least 1 metre,
medical masking for health workers in clinical areas;
avoidance of touching one’s face, respiratory etiquette,
•
Exhalation valves on respirators are discouraged as they
adequate ventilation in indoor settings, testing, contact
bypass the filtration function for exhaled air by the
tracing, quarantine and isolation. Together these
wearer.
measures are critical to prevent human-to-human
transmission of SARS-CoV-2.
Mask use in community settings
• Depending on the type, masks can be used either for
• Decision makers should apply a risk-based approach
protection of healthy persons or to prevent onward
when considering the use of masks for the general public.
transmission (source control).
• In areas of known or suspected community or cluster
• WHO continues to advise that anyone suspected or
SARS-CoV-2 transmission:
confirmed of having COVID-19 or awaiting viral
WHO advises that the general public should
laboratory test results should wear a medical mask when
wear a non-medical mask in indoor (e.g. shops,
in the presence of others (this does not apply to those
shared workplaces, schools - see Table 2 for
awaiting a test prior to travel).
details) or outdoor settings where physical
• For any mask type, appropriate use, storage and cleaning
distancing of at least 1 metre cannot be
or disposal are essential to ensure that they are as
maintained.
effective as possible and to avoid an increased
If indoors, unless ventilation has been be
transmission risk.
assessed to be adequate
1, WHO advises that the
general public should wear a non-medical mask,
Mask use in health care settings
regardless of whether physical distancing of at
• WHO continues to recommend that health workers (1)
least 1 metre can be maintained.
providing care to suspected or confirmed COVID-19
1 For adequate ventilation refer to regional or national institutions
recommended ventilation rate of 10 l/s/person should be met
or heating, refrigerating and air-conditioning societies enacting
(except healthcare facilities which have specific requirements). For
ventilation requirements. If not available or applicable, a
more information consult “Coronavirus (COVID-19) response
Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
Individuals/people with higher risk of severe
transparent and robust process of evaluation of the available
complications from COVID-19 (individuals >
evidence on benefits and harms. This evidence is evaluated
60 years old and those with underlying
through expedited systematic reviews and expert consensus-
conditions such as cardiovascular disease or
building through weekly GDG consultations, facilitated by a
diabetes mellitus, chronic lung disease, cancer,
methodologist and, when necessary, followed up by surveys.
cerebrovascular disease or immunosuppression)
This process also considers, as much as possible, potential
should wear medical masks when physical
resource implications, values and preferences, feasibility,
distancing of at least 1 metre cannot be
equity, and ethics. Draft guidance documents are reviewed by
maintained.
an external review panel of experts prior to publication.
•
In any transmission scenarios:
Caregivers or those sharing living space with
Purpose of the guidance
people with suspected or confirmed COVID-19,
regardless of symptoms, should wear a medical
This document provides guidance for decision makers, public
mask when in the same room.
health and IPC professionals, health care managers and health
workers in health care settings (including long-term care and
Mask use in children (2)
residential), for the public and for manufactures of non-
•
Children aged up to five years should not wear masks
medical masks (Annex). It will be revised as new evidence
for source control.
emerges.
•
For children between six and 11 years of age, a risk-
based approach should be applied to the decision to use
WHO has also developed comprehensive guidance on IPC
a mask; factors to be considered in the risk-based
strategies for health care settings (3), long-term care facilities
approach include intensity of SARS-CoV-2
(LTCF) (4), and home care (5).
transmission, child’s capacity to comply with the
appropriate use of masks and availability of appropriate
Background
adult supervision, local social and cultural environment,
The use of masks is part of a comprehensive package of
and specific settings such as households with elderly
prevention and control measures that can limit the spread of
relatives, or schools.
certain respiratory viral diseases, including COVID-19.
•
Mask use in children and adolescents 12 years or older
Masks can be used for protection of healthy persons (worn to
should follow the same principles as for adults.
protect oneself when in contact with an infected individual)
•
Special
considerations are required for
or for source control (worn by an infected individual to
immunocompromised children or for paediatric patients
prevent onward transmission) or both.
with cystic fibrosis or certain other diseases (e.g., cancer),
as well as for children of any age with developmental
However, the use of a mask alone, even when correctly used
disorders, disabilities or other specific health conditions
(see below), is insufficient to provide an adequate level of
that might interfere with mask wearing.
protection for an uninfected individual or prevent onward
transmission from an infected individual (source control).
Manufacturing of non-medical (fabric) masks (Annex)
Hand hygiene, physical distancing of at least 1 metre,
•
Homemade fabric masks of three-layer structure (based
respiratory etiquette, adequate ventilation in indoor settings,
on the fabric used) are advised, with each layer
testing, contact tracing, quarantine, isolation and other
providing a function: 1) an innermost layer of a
infection prevention and control (IPC) measures are critical
hydrophilic material 2) an outermost layer made of
to prevent human-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2,
hydrophobic material 3) a middle hydrophobic layer
whether or not masks are used (6).
which has been shown to enhance filtration or retain
droplets.
Mask management
•
Factory-made fabric masks should meet the minimum
thresholds related to three essential parameters:
For any type of mask, appropriate use, storage and cleaning,
filtration, breathability and fit.
or disposal are essential to ensure that they are as effective as
•
Exhalation valves are discouraged because they bypass
possible and to avoid any increased risk of transmission.
the filtration function of the fabric mask rendering it
Adherence to correct mask management practices varies,
unserviceable for source control.
reinforcing the need for appropriate messaging (7).
WHO provides the following guidance on the correct use of
Methodology for developing the guidance
masks:
Guidance and recommendations included in this document
• Perform hand hygiene before putting on the mask.
are based on published WHO guidelines (in particular the
• Inspect the mask for tears or holes, and do not use a
WHO Guidelines on infection prevention and control of
damaged mask.
epidemic- and pandemic-prone acute respiratory infections in
• Place the mask carefully, ensuring it covers the mouth
health care) (2) and ongoing evaluations of all available
and nose,
adjust to the nose bridge
and tie it securely to
scientific evidence by the WHO ad hoc COVID-19 Infection
minimize any gaps between the face and the mask. If
Prevention and Control Guidance Development Group
using ear loops, ensure these do not cross over as this
(COVID-19 IPC GDG) (see acknowledgement section for
widens the gap between the face and the mask.
list of GDG members). During emergencies WHO publishes
interim guidance, the development of which follows a
resources from ASHRAE and others’’
https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/resources
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Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
• Avoid touching the mask while wearing it. If the mask is
clinical settings where AGPs were not performed found virus
accidently touched, perform hand hygiene.
RNA, but others did not. The presence of viral RNA is not the
• Remove the mask using the appropriate technique. Do
same as replication- and infection-competent (viable) virus
not touch the front of the mask, but rather untie it from
that could be transmissible and capable of sufficient inoculum
behind.
to initiate invasive infection. A limited number of studies
• Replace the mask as soon as it becomes damp with a new
have isolated viable SARS-CoV-2 from air samples in the
clean, dry mask.
vicinity of COVID-19 patients (20, 21).
• Either discard the mask or place it in a clean plastic
Outside of medical facilities, in addition to droplet and fomite
resealable bag where it is kept until it can be washed and
transmission, aerosol transmission can occur in specific
cleaned. Do not store the mask around the arm or wrist
settings and circumstances, particularly in indoor, crowded
or pull it down to rest around the chin or neck.
and inadequately ventilated spaces, where infected persons
• Perform hand hygiene immediately afterward discarding
spend long periods of time with others. Studies have
a mask.
suggested these can include restaurants, choir practices,
• Do not re-use single-use mask.
fitness classes, nightclubs, offices and places of worship (12).
• Discard single-use masks after each use and properly
dispose of them immediately upon removal.
High quality research is required to address the knowledge
• Do not remove the mask to speak.
gaps related to modes of transmission, infectious dose and
• Do not share your mask with others.
settings in which transmission can be amplified. Currently,
studies are underway to better understand the conditions in
• Wash fabric masks in soap or detergent and preferably
which aerosol transmission or superspreading events may
hot water (at least 60° Centigrade/140° Fahrenheit) at
occur.
least once a day. If it is not possible to wash the masks
in hot water, then wash the mask in soap/detergent and
Current evidence suggests that people infected with SARS-
room temperature water, followed by boiling the mask
CoV-2 can transmit the virus whether they have symptoms or
for 1 minute.
not. However, data from viral shedding studies suggest that
infected individuals have highest viral loads just before or
Scientific evidence
around the time they develop symptoms and during the first
5-7 days of illness (12). Among symptomatic patients, the
Transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus
duration of infectious virus shedding has been estimated at 8
Knowledge about transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is
days from the onset of symptoms (22-24) for patients with
evolving continuously as new evidence accumulates.
mild disease, and longer for severely ill patients (12). The
COVID-19 is primarily a respiratory disease, and the clinical
period of infectiousness is shorter than the duration of
spectrum can range from no symptoms to severe acute
detectable RNA shedding, which can last many weeks (17).
respiratory illness, sepsis with organ dysfunction and death.
The incubation period for COVID-19, which is the time
According to available evidence, SARS-CoV-2 mainly
between exposure to the virus and symptom onset, is on
spreads between people when an infected person is in close
average 5-6 days, but can be as long as 14 days (25, 26).
contact with another person. Transmissibility of the virus
Pre-symptomatic transmission – from people who are infected
depends on the amount of viable virus being shed and
and shedding virus but have not yet developed symptoms – can
expelled by a person, the type of contact they have with others,
occur. Available data suggest that some people who have been
the setting and what IPC measures are in place. The virus can
exposed to the virus can test positive for SARS-CoV-2 via
spread from an infected person’s mouth or nose in small
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing 1-3 days before they
liquid particles when the person coughs, sneezes, sings,
develop symptoms (27). People who develop symptoms appear
breathes heavily or talks. These liquid particles are different
to have high viral loads on or just prior to the day of symptom
sizes, ranging from larger ‘respiratory droplets’ to smaller
onset, relative to later on in their infection (28).
‘aerosols.’ Close-range contact (typically within 1 metre) can
result in inhalation of, or inoculation with, the virus through
Asymptomatic transmission – transmission from people
the mouth, nose or eyes (8-13).
infected with SARS-CoV-2 who never develop symptoms –
can occur. One systematic review of 79 studies found that 20%
There is limited evidence of transmission through fomites
(17–25%) of people remained asymptomatic throughout the
(objects or materials that may be contaminated with viable
course of infection. (28). Another systematic review, which
virus, such as utensils and furniture or in health care settings
included 13 studies considered to be at low risk of bias,
a stethoscope or thermometer) in the immediate environment
estimated that 17% of cases remain asymptomatic (14%–20%)
around the infected person (14-17). Nonetheless, fomite
(30). Viable virus has been isolated from specimens of pre-
transmission is considered a possible mode of transmission
symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals, suggesting that
for SARS-CoV-2, given consistent finding of environmental
people who do not have symptoms may be able to transmit
contamination in the vicinity of people infected with SARS-
the virus to others. (25, 29-37)
CoV-2 and the fact that other coronaviruses and respiratory
viruses can be transmitted this way (12).
Studies suggest that asymptomatically infected individuals
are less likely to transmit the virus than those who develop
Aerosol transmission can occur in specific situations in which
symptoms (29). A systematic review concluded that
procedures that generate aerosols are performed. The
individuals who are asymptomatic are responsible for
scientific community has been actively researching whether
transmitting fewer infections than symptomatic and pre-
the SARS-CoV-2 virus might also spread through aerosol
symptomatic cases (38). One meta-analysis estimated that
transmission in the absence of aerosol generating procedures
there is a 42% lower relative risk of asymptomatic
(AGPs) (18, 19). Some studies that performed air sampling in
transmission compared to symptomatic transmission (30).
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Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
Guidance on mask use in health care settings
limitations (recall bias, limited information about the
situations when respirators were used and limited ability to
Masks for use in health care settings
measure exposures), and very few studies included in the
review evaluated the transmission risk of COVID-19 (46).
Medical masks are defined as surgical or procedure masks that
Most of the studies were conducted in settings in which AGPs
are flat or pleated. They are affixed to the head with straps that
were performed or other high-risk settings (e.g., intensive
go around the ears or head or both. Their performance
care units or where there was exposure to infected patients
characteristics are tested according to a set of standardized test
and health workers were not wearing adequate PPE).
methods (ASTM F2100, EN 14683, or equivalent) that aim to
balance high filtration, adequate breathability and optionally,
WHO continues to evaluate the evidence on the effectiveness
fluid penetration resistance (39, 40).
of the use of different masks and their potential harms, risks
and disadvantages, as well as their combination with hand
Filtering facepiece respirators (FFR), or respirators, offer a
hygiene, physical distancing of at least 1 metre and other IPC
balance of filtration and breathability. However, whereas
measures.
medical masks filter 3 micrometre droplets, respirators
must filter more challenging 0.075 micrometre solid
Guidance
particles. European FFRs, according to standard EN 149, at
WHO’s guidance on the type of respiratory protection to be
FFP2 performance there is filtration of at least 94% solid
worn by health workers providing care to COVID-19 patients
NaCl particles and oil droplets. US N95 FFRs, according to
is based on 1) WHO recommendations on IPC for epidemic-
NIOSH 42 CFR Part 84, filter at least 95% NaCl particles.
and pandemic-prone acute respiratory infections in health
Certified FFRs must also ensure unhindered breathing with
care (47); 2) updated systematic reviews of randomized
maximum resistance during inhalation and exhalation.
controlled trials on the effectiveness of medical masks
Another important difference between FFRs and other
compared to that of respirators for reducing the risk of clinical
masks is the way filtration is tested. Medical mask filtration
respiratory illness, influenza-like illness (ILI) and laboratory-
tests are performed on a cross-section of the masks, whereas
confirmed influenza or viral infections. WHO guidance in
FFRs are tested for filtration across the entire surface.
this area is aligned with guidelines of other professional
Therefore, the layers of the filtration material and the FFR
organizations, including the European Society of Intensive
shape, which ensure the outer edges of the FFR seal around
Care Medicine and the Society of Critical Care Medicine, and
wearer’s face, result in guaranteed filtration as claimed.
the Infectious Diseases Society of America (48, 49). .
Medical masks, by contrast, have an open shape and
potentially leaking structure. Other FFR performance
The WHO COVID-19 IPC GDG considered all available
requirements include being within specified parameters for
evidence on the modes of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and
maximum CO
on the effectiveness of medical mask versus respirator use to
2 build up, total inward leakage and tensile
strength of straps (41, 42).
protect health workers from infection and the potential for
harms such as skin conditions or breathing difficulties.
Other considerations included availability of medical masks
A. Guidance on the use of medical masks and respirators
versus respirators, cost and procurement implications and
to provide care to suspected or confirmed COVID-19
equity of access by health workers across different settings.
cases
The majority (71%) of the GDG members confirmed their
Evidence on the use of mask in health care settings
support for previous recommendations issued by WHO on 5
Systematic reviews have reported that the use of N95/P2
June 2020:
respirators compared with the use of medical masks (see
1. In the absence of aerosol generating procedures (AGPs)
2,
mask definitions, above) is not associated with statistically
WHO recommends that health workers providing care to
significant differences for the outcomes of health workers
patients with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 should
acquiring clinical respiratory illness, influenza-like illness
wear a medical mask (in addition to other PPE that are
(risk ratio 0.83, 95%CI 0.63-1.08) or laboratory-confirmed
part of droplet and contact precautions).
influenza (risk ratio 1.02, 95%CI 0.73-1.43); harms were
2. In care settings for COVID-19 patients where AGPs are
poorly reported and limited to discomfort associated with
performed, WHO recommends that health workers
lower compliance (43, 44). In many settings, preserving the
should wear a respirator (N95 or FFP2 or FFP3 standard,
supply of N95 respirators for high-risk, aerosol-generating
or equivalent) in addition to other PPE that are part of
procedures is an important consideration (45).
airborne and contact precautions.
A systematic review of observational studies on the
In general, health workers have strong preferences about
betacoronaviruses that cause severe acute respiratory
having the highest perceived protection possible to prevent
syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome
COVID-19 infection and therefore may place high value on
(MERS) and COVID-19 found that the use of face protection
the potential benefits of respirators in settings without AGPs.
(including respirators and medical masks) is associated with
WHO recommends respirators primarily for settings where
reduced risk of infection among health workers. These
AGPs are performed; however, if health workers prefer them
studies suggested that N95 or similar respirators might be
and they are sufficiently available and cost is not an issue,
associated with greater reduction in risk than medical or 12–
they could also be used during care for COVID-19 patients in
16-layer cotton masks. However, these studies had important
other settings. For additional guidance on PPE, including PPE
2 The WHO list of AGPs includes tracheal intubation, non-invasive
ventilation before intubation, bronchoscopy, sputum induction
ventilation, tracheotomy, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, manual
using nebulized hypertonic saline, and dentistry and autopsy
procedures.
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Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
beyond mask use by health workers, see WHO IPC guidance
• Other staff, visitors, outpatients and service providers
during health care when COVID-19 infection is suspected (3)
should also wear a mask (medical or non-medical) at all
and also WHO guidance on the rational use of PPE (45).
times
Exhalation valves on respirators are discouraged as they
• Inpatients are not required to wear a mask (medical or
bypass the filtration function for exhaled air.
non-medical) unless physical distancing of at least 1
metre cannot be maintained (e.g., when being examined
or visited at the bedside) or when outside of their care
B. Guidance on the use of mask by health workers,
area (e.g., when being transported).
caregivers and others based on transmission scenario
• Masks should be changed when they become soiled, wet
or damaged or if the health worker/caregiver removes
the mask (e.g., for eating or drinking or caring for a
Definitions
patient who requires droplet/contact precautions for
Universal masking in health facilities is defined as the
reasons other than COVID-19).
requirement for all persons (staff, patients, visitors, service
2. In the context of known or suspected sporadic SARS-
providers and others) to wear a mask at all times except for
CoV-2 virus transmission, WHO provides the following
when eating or drinking.
guidance:
Targeted continuous medical mask use is defined as the
• Health workers, including community health workers
practice of wearing a medical mask by all health workers
and caregivers who work in clinical areas, should
and caregivers working in clinical areas during all routine
continuously wear a medical mask during routine
activities throughout the entire shift.
activities throughout the entire shift, apart from when
Health workers are all people primarily engaged in actions
eating and drinking and changing their medical masks
with the primary intent of enhancing health. Examples are:
after caring for a patient who requires droplet/contact
nursing and midwifery professionals, doctors, cleaners,
precautions for other reasons. In all cases, medical
other staff who work in health facilities, social workers, and
masks must be changed when wet, soiled, or damaged;
community health workers.
used medical masks should be properly disposed of at
the end of the shift; and new clean ones should be used
for the next shift or when medical masks are changed.
Evidence on universal masking in health care settings
• It is particularly important to adopt the continuous use
of masks in potentially high transmission risk settings
In areas where there is community transmission or large-scale
including triage, family physician/general practitioner
outbreaks of COVID-19, universal masking has been adopted
offices; outpatient departments; emergency rooms;
in many hospitals to reduce the potential of transmission by
COVID-19 designated units; haematology, oncology
health workers to patients, to other staff and anyone else
and transplant units; and long-term health and
entering the facility (50).
residential facilities.
Two studies found that implementation of a universal
• Staff who do not work in clinical areas (e.g.,
masking policy in hospital systems was associated with
administrative staff) do not need to wear a medical mask
decreased risk of healthcare-acquired SARS-CoV-2 infection.
during routine activities if they have no exposure to
However, these studies had serious limitations: both were
patients.
before-after studies describing a single example of a
phenomenon before and after an event of interest, with no
Whether using masks for universal masking within health
concurrent control group, and other infection control
facilities or targeted continuous medical mask use
throughout
measures were not controlled for (51, 52). In addition,
the entire shift, health workers should ensure the following:
observed decreases in health worker infections occurred too
•
Medical mask use should be combined with other
quickly to be attributable to the universal masking policy.
measures including frequent hand hygiene and physical
Guidance
distancing among health workers in shared and crowded
places such as cafeterias, break rooms, and dressing
Although more research on universal masking in heath
rooms.
settings is needed, it is the expert opinion of the majority
•
The medical mask should be changed when wet, soiled,
(79%) of WHO COVID-19 IPC GDG members that universal
or damaged.
masking is advisable in geographic settings where there is
•
known or suspected community or cluster transmission of the
The medical mask should not be touched to adjust it or
SARS-CoV-2 virus.
if displaced from the face for any reason. If this happens,
1. In areas of known or suspected community or cluster
the mask should be safely removed and replaced, and
SARS-CoV-2 transmission, universal masking should be
hand hygiene performed.
advised in all health facilities (see Table 1).
•
The medical mask (as well as other personal protective
equipment) should be discarded and changed after
• All health workers, including community health
caring for any patient who requires contact/droplet
workers and caregivers, should wear a medical mask at
precautions for other pathogens, followed by hand
all times, for any activity (care of COVID-19 or non-
hygiene.
COVID-19 patients) and in any common area (e.g.,
•
Under no circumstances should medical masks be
cafeteria, staff rooms).
shared between health workers or between others
wearing them. Masks should be appropriately disposed
of whenever removed and not reused.
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Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
•
A particulate respirator at least as protective as a United
Face shields are designed to provide protection from splashes
States of America (US) National Institute for
of biological fluid (particularly respiratory secretions),
Occupational Safety and Health-certified N95, N99, US
chemical agents and debris (67, 68) into the eyes. In the
Food and Drug Administration surgical N95, European
context of protection from SARS-CoV-2 transmission
Union standard FFP2 or FFP3, or equivalent, should be
through respiratory droplets, face shields are used by health
worn in settings for COVID-19 patients where AGPs are
workers as personal protective equipment (PPE) for eye
performed (see WHO recommendations below). In
protection in combination with a medical mask or a respirator
these settings, this includes continuous use by health
(69, 70) While a face shield may confer partial protection of
workers throughout the entire shift, when this policy is
the facial area against respiratory droplets, these and smaller
implemented.
droplets may come into contact with mucous membranes or
Note: Decision makers may consider the transmission
with the eyes from the open gaps between the visor and the
intensity in the catchment area of the health facility or
face (71,67).
community setting and the feasibility of implementing a
Fabric masks are not regulated as protective masks or part of
universal masking policy compared to a policy based on
the PPE directive. They vary in quality and are not subject to
assessed or presumed exposure risk. Decisions need to take
mandatory testing or common standards and as such are not
into account procurement, sustainability and costs of the
considered an appropriate alternative to medical masks for
policy. When planning masks for all health workers, long-
protection of health workers. One study that evaluated the use
term availability of adequate medical masks (and when
of cloth masks in a health care facility found that health care
applicable, respirators) for all workers should be ensured, in
workers using 2 ply cotton cloth masks (a type of fabric mask)
particular for those providing care for patients with confirmed
were at increased risk of influenza-like illness compared with
or suspected COVID-19. Proper use and adequate waste
those who wore medical masks (72).
management should be ensured.
In the context of severe medical mask shortage, face shields
The potential harms and risks of mask and respirator use in
alone or in combination with fabric mask may be considered
the health facility setting include:
as a last resort (73). Ensure proper design of face shields to
cover the sides of the face and below the chin.
• contamination of the mask due to its manipulation by
contaminated hands (53, 54);
As for other PPE items, if production of fabric masks for use
• potential self-contamination that can occur if medical
in health care settings is proposed locally in situations of
masks are not changed when wet, soiled or damaged; or
shortage or stock out, a local authority should assess the
by frequent touching/adjusting when worn for prolonged
product according to specific minimum performance
periods (55);
standards and required technical specifications (see Annex).
• possible development of facial skin lesions, irritant
dermatitis or worsening acne, when used frequently for
Additional considerations for community care settings
long hours (56-58);
Like other health workers, community health workers should
• discomfort, facial temperature changes and headaches
apply standard precautions for all patients at all times, with
from mask wearing (44, 59, 60);
particular emphasis regarding hand and respiratory hygiene,
• false sense of security leading potentially to reduced
surface and environmental cleaning and disinfection and the
adherence to well recognized preventive measures such
appropriate use of PPE. When a patient is suspected or
as physical distancing and hand hygiene; and risk-taking
confirmed of having COVID-19, community health workers
behaviours (61-64);
should always apply contact and droplet precautions. These
• difficulty wearing a mask in hot and humid environments
include the use of a medical mask, gown, gloves and eye
• possible risk of stock depletion due to widespread use in
protection (74).
the context of universal masking and targeted continuous
mask use and consequent scarcity or unavailability for
IPC measures that are needed will depend on the local
health workers caring for COVID 19 patients and during
COVID-19 transmission dynamics and the type of contact
health care interactions with non-COVID-19 patients
required by the health care activity (see Table 1). The
where medical masks or respirators might be required.
community health workforce should ensure that patients and
workforce members apply precautionary measures such as
Alternatives to medical masks in health care settings
respiratory hygiene and physical distancing of at least 1 metre
(3.3 feet). They also may support set-up and maintenance of
The WHO’s disease commodity package (DCP) for COVID-
hand hygiene stations and community education (74). In the
19 recommends medical masks for health workers to be type
context of known or suspected community or cluster
II or higher (65). Type II medical masks provide a physical
transmission, community health workers should wear a
barrier to fluids and particulate materials and have bacterial
medical mask when providing essential routine services (see
filtration efficiency of ≥98% compared to Type I mask,
Table 1).
which has bacterial filtration efficiency of ≥95% and lower
fluid resistance (66) In case of stock outs of type II or higher
medical masks, health workers should use a type I medical
mask as an alternative. Other alternatives such as face shields
or fabric masks should be carefully evaluated.
-6-
Table 1. Mask use in health care settings depending on transmission scenario, target population, setting, activity and type*
Transmission
Target population
Setting (where)
Activity (what)
Mask type (which
scenario
(who)
one) *
Known or
Health workers and
Health facility
For any activity in patient-care
Medical mask (or
suspected
caregivers
(including primary,
areas (COVID-19 or non-
respirator if aerosol
community or
secondary, tertiary care COVID-19 patients) or in any
generating
cluster
levels, outpatient care,
common areas (e.g., cafeteria,
procedures
transmission
and long-term care
staff rooms)
performed)
of SARS-
facilities)
Other staff, patients,
For any activity or in any
Medical or fabric
CoV-2
visitors, service
common area
mask
suppliers
Inpatients
In single or multiple-
When physical distance of at
bed rooms
least 1 metre cannot be
maintained
Health workers and
Home visit (for
When in direct contact with a
Medical mask
caregivers
example, for antenatal
patient or when a distance of at
or postnatal care, or for least 1 metre cannot be
a chronic condition)
maintained.
Community
Community outreach
programmes/essential routine
services
Known or
Health workers and
Health facility
In patient care area- irrespective Medical mask
suspected
caregivers
(including primary,
of whether patients have
sporadic
secondary, tertiary care suspected/confirmed COVID-19
transmission
levels, outpatient care,
Other staff, patients,
No routine activities in patient
Medical mask not
of SARS-
and long-term care
visitors, service
areas
required. Medical
CoV-2 cases
facilities)
suppliers and all others
mask should be
worn if in contact or
within 1 metre of
patients, or
according to local
risk assessment
Health workers and
Home visit (for
When in direct contact or when a Medical mask
caregivers
example, for antenatal
distance of at least 1metre
or postnatal care, or for cannot be maintained.
a chronic condition)
Community
Community outreach programs
(e.g., bed net distribution)
No
Health workers and
Health facility
Providing any patient care
Medical mask use
documented
caregivers
(including primary,
according to
SARS-CoV-2
secondary, tertiary care
standard and
transmission
levels, outpatient care,
transmission-based
and long-term care
precautions
facilities)
Community
Community outreach programs
Any
Health workers
Health care facility
Performing an AGP on a
Respirator (N95 or
transmission
(including primary,
suspected or confirmed COVID- N99 or FFP2 or
scenario
secondary, tertiary care 19 patient or providing care in a FFP3)
levels, outpatient care,
setting where AGPs are in place
and long-term care
for COVID-19 patients
facilities), in settings
where aerosol
generating procedures
(AGP) are performed
*
This table refers only to the use of medical masks and respirators. The use of medical masks and respirators may need to be
combined with other personal protective equipment and other measures as appropriate, and always with hand hygiene.
link to page 8
Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
Guidance on mask use in community settings
A meta-analysis of observational studies on infections due to
betacoronaviruses, with the intrinsic biases of observational
Evidence on the protective effect of mask use in
data, showed that the use of either disposable medical masks
community settings
or reusable 12–16-layer cotton masks was associated with
At present there is only limited and inconsistent scientific
protection of healthy individuals within households and
evidence to support the effectiveness of masking of healthy
among contacts of cases (46). This could be considered to be
people in the community to prevent infection with respiratory
indirect evidence for the use of masks (medical or other) by
viruses, including SARS-CoV-2 (75). A large randomized
healthy individuals in the wider community; however, these
community-based trial in which 4862 healthy participants
studies suggest that such individuals would need to be in close
were divided into a group wearing medical/surgical masks
proximity to an infected person in a household or at a mass
and a control group found no difference in infection with
gathering where physical distancing cannot be achieved to
SARS-CoV-2 (76). A recent systematic review found nine
become infected with the virus. Results from cluster
trials (of which eight were cluster-randomized controlled
randomized controlled trials on the use of masks among
trials in which clusters of people, versus individuals, were
young adults living in university residences in the United
randomized) comparing medical/surgical masks versus no
States of America indicate that face masks may reduce the
masks to prevent the spread of viral respiratory illness. Two
rate of influenza-like illness but showed no impact on risk of
trials were with healthcare workers and seven in the
laboratory-confirmed influenza (115, 116).
community. The review concluded that wearing a mask may
Guidance
make little or no difference to the prevention of influenza-like
illness (ILI) (RR 0.99, 95%CI 0.82 to 1.18) or laboratory
The WHO COVID-19 IPC GDG considered all available
confirmed illness (LCI) (RR 0.91, 95%CI 0.66-1.26) (44); the
evidence on the use of masks by the general public including
certainty of the evidence was low for ILI, moderate for LCI.
effectiveness, level of certainty and other potential benefits
and harms, with respect to transmission scenarios, indoor
By contrast, a small retrospective cohort study from Beijing
versus outdoor settings, physical distancing and ventilation.
found that mask use by entire families before the first family
Despite the limited evidence of protective efficacy of mask
member developed COVID-19 symptoms was 79% effective
wearing in community settings, in addition to all other
in reducing transmission (OR 0.21, 0.06-0.79) (77). A case-
recommended preventive measures, the GDG advised mask
control study from Thailand found that wearing a medical or
wearing in the following settings:
non-medical mask all the time during contact with a COVID-
19 patient was associated with a 77% lower risk of infection
(aOR 0.23; 95% CI 0.09–0.60) (78). Several small
1. In areas with known or suspected community or cluster
observational studies with epidemiological data have
transmission of SARS-CoV-2, WHO advises mask use
reported an association between mask use by an infected
by the public in the following situations (see Table 2):
person and prevention of onward transmission of SARS-
Indoor settings:
CoV-2 infection in public settings. (8, 79-81).
in public indoor settings where ventilation is known to be
A number of studies, some peer reviewed (82-86) but most
poor regardless of physical distancing: limited or no
published as pre-prints (87-104), reported a decline in the
opening of windows and doors for natural ventilation;
COVID-19 cases associated with face mask usage by the
ventilation system is not properly functioning or
public, using country- or region-level data. One study
maintained; or cannot be assessed;
reported an association between community mask wearing
in public indoor settings that have adequate
3 ventilation
policy adoption and increased movement (less time at home,
if physical distancing of at least 1 metre cannot be
increased visits to commercial locations) (105). These studies
maintained;
differed in setting, data sources and statistical methods and
in household indoor settings: when there is a visitor who
have important limitations to consider (106), notably the lack
is not a household member and ventilation is known to
of information about actual exposure risk among individuals,
be poor, with limited opening of windows and doors for
adherence to mask wearing and the enforcement of other
natural ventilation, or the ventilation system cannot be
preventive measures (107, 108).
assessed or is not properly functioning, regardless of
whether physical distancing of at least 1 metre can be
Studies of influenza, influenza-like illness and human
maintained;
coronaviruses (not including COVID-19) provide evidence
in household indoor settings that have adequate
that the use of a medical mask can prevent the spread of
ventilation if physical distancing of at least 1 metre
infectious droplets from a symptomatic infected person to
cannot be maintained.
someone else and potential contamination of the environment
by these droplets (75). There is limited evidence that wearing
a medical mask may be beneficial for preventing transmission
between healthy individuals sharing households with a sick
person or among attendees of mass gatherings (44, 109-114).
3 For adequate ventilation refer to regional or national institutions
resources from ASHRAE and others’’
or heating, refrigerating and air-conditioning societies enacting
https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/resources
ventilation requirements. If not available or applicable, a
recommended ventilation rate of 10 l/s/person should be met
(except healthcare facilities which have specific requirements). For
more information consult “Coronavirus (COVID-19) response
-8-
link to page 9
Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
Table 2. Mask use in community settings depending on transmission scenario, setting, target population, purpose and type*
Transmission
Situations/settings (where)
Target Population (who)
Purpose of
Mask type
scenario
mask use
(which one)
(why)
Known or suspected Indoor settings, where
General population in public* settings Potential
Fabric mask
community or
ventilation is known to be such as shops, shared workplaces, benefit for
cluster transmission poor or cannot be assessed or schools, churches, restaurants, gyms, source
of SARS-CoV-2
the ventilation system is not etc. or in enclosed settings such as control
properly maintained,
public transportation.
regardless of whether
physical distancing of at least For households, in indoor settings, when
1 meter can be maintained
there is a visitor who is not a member of
Indoor settings that have the household
adequate
4 ventilation if
physical distancing of at least
1 metre cannot be maintained
Outdoor settings where General population in settings such as
physical distancing cannot be crowded open-air markets, lining up
maintained
outside a building, during
demonstrations, etc.
Settings where physical Individuals/people with higher risk of Protection
Medical
distancing cannot be
severe complications from COVID-19:
mask
maintained, and the individual • People aged ≥60 years
is at increased risk of infection
and/or negative outcomes
• People with underlying
comorbidities, such as
cardiovascular disease or
diabetes mellitus, chronic lung
disease, cancer, cerebrovascular
disease, immunosuppression,
obesity, asthma
Known or suspected Risk-based approach
General population
Potential
Depends on
sporadic
benefit for purpose (see
transmission, or no
source
details in the
documented SARS-
control
guidance
CoV-2 transmission
and/or
content)
protection
Any transmission Any setting in the community Anyone suspected or confirmed of Source
Medical
scenario
having COVID-19, regardless of control
mask
whether they have symptoms or not, or
anyone awaiting viral test results, when
in the presence of others
*
Public indoor setting includes any indoor setting outside of the household
4 For adequate ventilation refer to regional or national institutions or heating, refrigerating and air-conditioning societies enacting ventilation
requirements. If not available or applicable, a recommended ventilation rate of 10l/s/person should be met (except healthcare facilities which
have specific requirements).). For more information consult “Coronavirus (COVID-19) response resources from ASHRAE and others’’
https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/resources
-9-
Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
In outdoor settings:
follow instructions on how to put on, take off, and
where physical distancing of at least 1 metre cannot be
dispose of medical masks and perform hand hygiene
maintained;
(118);
individuals/people with higher risk of severe
follow all additional measures, in particular
complications from COVID-19 (individuals ≥ 60 years
respiratory hygiene, frequent hand hygiene and
old and those with underlying conditions such as
maintaining physical distance of at least 1 metre
cardiovascular disease or diabetes mellitus, chronic lung
from other persons (46). If a medical mask is not
disease, cancer, cerebrovascular disease or
available for individuals with suspected or
immunosuppression) should wear medical masks in any
confirmed COVID-19, a fabric mask meeting the
setting where physical distance cannot be maintained.
specifications in the Annex of this document should
be worn by patients as a source control measure,
2. In areas with known or suspected sporadic transmission
pending access to a medical mask. The use of a non-
or no documented transmission, as in all transmission
medical mask can minimize the projection of
scenarios, WHO continues to advise that decision makers
respiratory droplets from the user (119, 120).
should apply a risk-based approach focusing on the following
Asymptomatic persons who test positive for SARS-
criteria when considering the use of masks for the public:
CoV-2, should wear a medical mask when with
others for a period of 10 days after testing positive.
•
Purpose of mask use. Is the intention source control
(preventing an infected person from transmitting the
virus to others) or protection (preventing a healthy
Potential benefits/harms
wearer from the infection)?
The potential advantages of mask use by healthy people in the
•
Risk of exposure to SARS-CoV-2. Based on the
general public include:
epidemiology and intensity of transmission in the
• reduced spread of respiratory droplets containing
population, is there transmission and limited or no capacity
infectious viral particles, including from infected persons
to implement other containment measures such as contact
before they develop symptoms (121);
tracing, ability to carry out testing and isolate and care for
• reduced potential for stigmatization and greater of
suspected and confirmed cases? Is there risk to individuals
acceptance of mask wearing, whether to prevent
working in close contact with the public (e.g., social
infecting others or by people caring for COVID-19
workers, personal support workers, teachers, cashiers)?
patients in non-clinical settings (122);
•
Vulnerability of the mask wearer/population. Is the
• making people feel they can play a role in contributing to
mask wearer at risk of severe complications from
stopping spread of the virus;
COVID-19? Medical masks should be used by older
• encouraging concurrent transmission prevention
people (> 60 years old), immunocompromised patients
behaviours such as hand hygiene and not touching the
and people with comorbidities, such as cardiovascular
eyes, nose and mouth (123-125);
disease or diabetes mellitus, chronic lung disease, cancer
• preventing transmission of other respiratory illnesses like
and cerebrovascular disease (117).
tuberculosis and influenza and reducing the burden of
•
Setting in which the population lives. Is there high
those diseases during the pandemic (126).
population density (such as in refugee camps, camp-like
settings, and among people living in cramped conditions)
The potential disadvantages of mask use by healthy people in
and settings where individuals are unable to keep a
the general public include:
physical distance of at least 1 metre (for example, on
• headache and/or breathing difficulties, depending on
public transportation)?
type of mask used (55);
•
Feasibility. Are masks available at an affordable cost?
• development of facial skin lesions, irritant dermatitis or
Do people have access to clean water to wash fabric
worsening acne, when used frequently for long hours (58,
masks, and can the targeted population tolerate possible
59, 127);
adverse effects of wearing a mask?
• difficulty with communicating clearly, especially for
•
Type of mask. Does the use of medical masks in the
persons who are deaf or have poor hearing or use lip
community divert this critical resource from the health
reading (128, 129);
workers and others who need them the most? In settings
• discomfort (44, 55, 59)
where medical masks are in short supply,
stocks should
• a false sense of security leading to potentially lower
be prioritized for health workers and at-risk
adherence to other critical preventive measures such as
individuals.
physical distancing and hand hygiene (105);
• poor compliance with mask wearing, in particular by
The decision of governments and local jurisdictions whether
young children (111, 130-132);
to recommend or make mandatory the use of masks should be
• waste management issues; improper mask disposal
based on the above assessment as well as the local context,
leading to increased litter in public places and
culture, availability of masks and resources required.
environmental hazards (133);
3. In any transmission scenario:
• disadvantages for or difficulty wearing masks, especially
• Persons with any symptoms suggestive of COVID-19
for children, developmentally challenged persons, those
should wear a medical mask and (5) additionally:
with mental illness, persons with cognitive impairment,
self-isolate and seek medical advice as soon as they
those with asthma or chronic respiratory or breathing
start to feel unwell with potential symptoms of
problems, those who have had facial trauma or recent
COVID-19, even if symptoms are mild);
oral maxillofacial surgery and those living in hot and
humid environments (55, 130).
-10-
Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
Considerations for implementation
Face shields for the general public
When implementing mask policies for the public, decision-
At present, face shields are considered to provide a level of
makers should:
eye protection only and should not be considered as an
• clearly communicate the purpose of wearing a mask,
equivalent to masks with respect to respiratory droplet
including when, where, how and what type of mask
protection and/or source control. Current laboratory testing
should be worn; explain what wearing a mask may
standards only assess face shields for their ability to provide
achieve and what it will not achieve; and communicate
eye protection from chemical splashes (145).
clearly that this is one part of a package of measures
along with hand hygiene, physical distancing, respiratory
In the context of non-availability or difficulties wearing a
etiquette, adequate ventilation in indoor settings and
non-medical mask (in persons with cognitive, respiratory or
other measures that are all necessary and all reinforce
hearing impairments, for example), face shields may be
each other;
considered as an alternative, noting that they are inferior to
• inform/train people on when and how to use masks
masks with respect to droplet transmission and prevention. If
appropriately and safely (see mask management and
face shields are to be used, ensure proper design to cover the
maintenance sections);
sides of the face and below the chin.
• consider the feasibility of use, supply/access issues
(cleaning, storage), waste management, sustainability,
Medical masks for the care of COVID-19 patients at
social and psychological acceptance (of both wearing
home
and not wearing different types of masks in different
contexts);
WHO provides guidance on how to care for patients with
• continue gathering scientific data and evidence on the
confirmed and suspected COVID-19 at home when care in a
effectiveness of mask use (including different types of
health facility or other residential setting is not possible (5).
masks) in non-health care settings;
Persons with suspected COVID-19 or mild COVID-19
• evaluate the impact (positive, neutral or negative) of using
symptoms should wear a medical mask as much as
masks in the general population (including behavioural and
possible, especially when there is no alternative to being
social sciences) through good quality research.
in the same room with other people. The mask should be
changed at least once daily. Persons who cannot tolerate
a medical mask should rigorously apply respiratory
Mask use during physical activity
hygiene (i.e., cover mouth and nose with a disposable
Evidence
paper tissue when coughing or sneezing and dispose of it
immediately after use or use a bent elbow procedure and
There are limited studies on the benefits and harms of wearing
then perform hand hygiene).
medical masks, respirators and non-medical masks while
Caregivers of or those sharing living space with people
exercising. Several studies have demonstrated statistically
with suspected COVID-19 or with mild COVID-19
significant deleterious effects on various cardiopulmonary
symptoms should
wear a medical mask when in the same
physiologic parameters during mild to moderate exercise in
room as the affected person.
healthy subjects and in those with underlying respiratory
diseases (134-140). The most significant impacts have been
consistently associated with the use of respirators and in
persons with underlying obstructive airway pulmonary
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Patients. Ann Intern Med. 2020;173(1):W22-W3.
This document was developed based on advice by the
158. Ma QX, Shan H, Zhang HL, Li GM, Yang RM, Chen
Strategic and Technical Advisory Group for Infectious
JM. Potential utilities of mask-wearing and instant hand
Hazards (STAG-IH), and in consultation with the following
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members of:
doi: 10.1002/jmv.25805.
159. Davies A, Thompson KA, Giri K, Kafatos G, Walker J,
Bennett A. Testing the efficacy of homemade masks:
1) The WHO Health Emergencies Programme (WHE) Ad-
would they protect in an influenza pandemic? Disaster
hoc COVID-19 IPC Guidance Development Group (in
Med Public Health Prep. 2013;7(4):413-8.
alphabetical order):
160. Konda A, Prakash A, Moss GA, Schmoldt M, Grant
GD, Guha S. Aerosol Filtration Efficiency of Common
Jameela Alsalman, Ministry of Health, Bahrain;
Anucha
Fabrics Used in Respiratory Cloth Masks. ACS Nano.
Apisarnthanarak, Thammsat University Hospital, Thailand;
2020;14(5):6339-47.
Baba Aye, Public Services International, France; Gregory
Built, UNICEF, United States of America (USA); Roger
Chou, Oregon Health Science University, USA; May Chu,
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Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
Colorado School of Public Health, USA; John Conly, Alberta
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), USA; Melissa
Health Services, Canada; Barry Cookson, University College
Leavitt, Clinton Health Access Initiative; John McGhie,
London, United Kingdom (U.K); Nizam Damani, Southern
International Medical Corps; Claudio Meirovich, Meirovich
Health & Social Care Trust, United Kingdom; Dale Fisher,
Consulting; Mike Paddock, UNDP, Trish Perl, University of
GOARN, Singapore; Joost Hopman, Radboud University
Texas Southwestern Medical Center, USA; Alain Prat,
Medical Center, The Netherlands; Mushtuq Husain, Institute
Global Fund, Ana Maria Rule, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg
of Epidemiology, Disease Control & Research, Bangladesh;
School of Public Health, U.S.A; Jitendar Sharma, Andra
Kushlani Jayatilleke, Sri Jayewardenapura General Hospital,
Pradesh MedTEch Zone, India; Alison Syrett, SIGMA,
Sri Lanka; Seto Wing Jong, School of Public Health, Hong
Reiner Voelksen, VOELKSEN Regulatory Affairs, Nasri
Kong SAR, China; Souha Kanj, American University of
Yussuf, IPC Kenya.
Beirut Medical Center, Lebanon; Daniele Lantagne, Tufts
University, USA; Fernanda Lessa, Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, USA; Anna Levin, University of São
3) External IPC peer review group:
Paulo, Brazil; Ling Moi Lin, Sing Health, Singapore; Caline
Paul Hunter, University of East Anglia, U.K; Direk
Mattar, World Health Professions Alliance, USA; Mary-
Limmathurotsakul, Mahidol University, Thailand; Mark
Louise McLaws, University of New South Wales, Australia;
Loeb, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine,
Geeta Mehta, Journal of Patient Safety and Infection Control,
McMaster University, Canada; Kalisavar Marimuthu,
India; Shaheen Mehtar, Infection Control Africa Network,
National Centre for Infectious Diseases, Singapore; Yong
South Africa; Ziad Memish, Ministry of Health, Saudi Arabia;
Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of
Babacar Ndoye, Infection Control Africa Network, Senegal;
Singapore; Nandi Siegfried, South African Medical Research
Fernando Otaiza, Ministry of Health, Chile; Diamantis
Council, South Africa.
Plachouras, European Centre for Disease Prevention and
Control, Sweden; Maria Clara Padoveze, School of Nursing,
University of São Paulo, Brazil; Mathias Pletz, Jena
4) UNICEF observers: Nagwa Hasanin, Sarah Karmin,
University, Germany; Marina Salvadori, Public Health
Raoul Kamadjeu, Jerome Pfaffmann,
Agency of Canada, Canada; Mitchell Schwaber, Ministry of
Health, Israel; Nandini Shetty, Public Health England, United
WHO Secretariat:
Kingdom; Mark Sobsey, University of North Carolina, USA;
Paul Ananth Tambyah, National University Hospital,
Benedetta Allegranzi, Gertrude Avortri, Mekdim Ayana,
Singapore; Andreas Voss, Canisus-Wilhelmina Ziekenhuis,
Hanan Balkhy, April Baller, Elizabeth Barrera-Cancedda,
The Netherlands; Walter Zingg, University of Geneva
Anjana Bhushan, Whitney Blanco, Sylvie Briand, Alessandro
Hospitals, Switzerland;
Cassini, Giorgio Cometto, Ana Paula Coutinho Rehse,
Carmem Da Silva, Nino Dal Dayanguirang, Sophie Harriet
2) The WHO Technical Advisory Group of Experts on
Dennis, Sergey Eremin, Luca Fontana, Dennis Falzon,
Personal Protective Equipment (TAG PPE):
Nathan Ford, Nina Gobat, Jonas Gonseth-Garcia, Rebeca
Faisal Al Shehri, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Saudi
Grant, Tom Grein, Ivan Ivanov, Landry Kabego, Catherine
Arabi; Selcen Ayse, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Turkey;
Kane, Pierre Claver Kariyo, Ying Ling Lin, Ornella Lincetto,
Razan Asally, Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Saudi Arabi;
Abdi Mahamud, Madison Moon, Takeshi Nishijima, Kevin
Kelly Catlin, Clinton Health Access Initiative; Patricia Ching,
Babila Ousman, Pillar Ramon-Pardo, Paul Rogers, Nahoko
WHO Collaborating Center, The University of Hong Kong,
Shindo, Alice Simniceanu, Valeska Stempliuk, Maha Talaat
China; Mark Croes, Centexbel, Spring Gombe, United
Ismail, Joao Paulo Toledo, Anthony Twywan, Maria Van
Nations; Emilio Hornsey, UK Public Health Rapid Support
Kerkhove, Adriana Velazquez, Vicky Willet, Masahiro
Team, U.K.; Selcen Kilinc-Balci, United States Centers for
Zakoji, Bassim Zayed.
WHO continues to monitor the situation closely for any changes that may affect this interim guidance. Should any factors change,
WHO will issue a further update. Otherwise, this interim guidance document will expire 1 year after the date of publication.
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Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
Annex: Updated guidance on non-medical (fabric) masks
cloth face masks have limited efficacy in combating viral
infection transmission.
Background
Homemade non-medical masks
A non-medical mask, also called fabric mask, community
mask or face covering, is neither a medical device nor
Homemade non-medical masks made of household fabrics
personal protective equipment. Non-medical masks are aimed
(e.g., cotton, cotton blends and polyesters) should ideally
at the general population, primarily for protecting others from
have a three-layer structure, with each layer providing a
exhaled virus-containing droplets emitted by the mask wearer.
function (see Figure 1) (168). It should include:
They are not regulated by local health authorities or
1. an innermost layer (that will be in contact with the face)
occupational health associations, nor is it required for
of a hydrophilic material (e.g., cotton or cotton blends of
manufacturers to comply with guidelines established by
terry cloth towel, quilting cotton and flannel) that is non-
standards organizations. Non-medical masks may be
irritating against the skin and can contain droplets (148)
homemade or manufactured. The essential performance
2. a middle hydrophobic layer of synthetic breathable non-
parameters include good breathability, filtration of droplets
woven material (spunbond polypropylene, polyester and
originating from the wearer, and a snug fit covering the nose
polyaramid), which may enhance filtration, prevent
and mouth. Exhalation valves on masks are discouraged as
permeation of droplets or retain droplets (148, 150)
they bypass the filtration function of the mask.
3. an outermost layer made of hydrophobic material (e.g.
Non-medical masks are made from a variety of woven and non-
spunbond polypropylene, polyester or their blends),
woven fabrics, such as woven cotton, cotton/synthetic blends,
which may limit external contamination from penetrating
polyesters and breathable spunbond polypropylene, for example.
through the layers to the wearer’s nose and mouth and
They may be made of different combinations of fabrics, layering
maintains and prevents water accumulation from
sequences and available in diverse shapes. Currently, more is
blocking the pores of the fabric (148).
known about common household fabrics and combinations to
Although a minimum of three layers is recommended for non-
make non-medical masks with target filtration efficiency and
medical masks for the most common fabric used, single,
breathability (119, 146-150). Few of these fabrics and
double or other layer combinations of advanced materials
combinations have been systematically evaluated and there is no
may be used if they meet performance requirements. It is
single design, choice of material, layering or shape among
important to note that with more tightly woven materials,
available non-medical masks that are considered optimal. While
breathability may be reduced as the number of layers
studies have focussed on single fabrics and combinations, few
increases. A quick check may be performed by attempting to
have looked at the shape and universal fit to the wearer. The
breathe, through the mouth, through the multiple layers.
unlimited combination of available fabrics and materials results
in variable filtration and breathability.
In the context of the global shortage of medical masks and
PPE, encouraging the public to create their own fabric masks
may promote individual enterprise and community
integration. Moreover, the production of non-medical masks
Inner
Middle
Outer
may offer a source of income for those able to manufacture
•Hydrophilic
•Filtration
•Hydrophobic
masks within their communities. Fabric masks can also be a
•Cotton or
•Nylon, PP
•Polyester
form of cultural expression, encouraging public acceptance of
cotton blend
spunbond,
protection measures in general. The safe re-use of fabric
wool felt
masks will also reduce costs and waste and contribute to
sustainability (151-156).
This Annex is destined intended for two types of readers:
homemade mask makers and factory-made masks
manufacturers. Decision makers and managers (national/sub-
Figure 1. Non-medical mask construction using breathable
national level) advising on a type of non-medical mask are
fabrics such as cotton, cotton blends, polyesters, nylon and
also the focus of this guidance and should take into
polypropylene spunbond that are breathable may impart
consideration the following features of non-medical masks:
adequate filtration performance when layered. Single- or
breathability, filtration efficiency (FE), or filtration, number
double-layer combinations of advanced materials may be
and combination of fabric layers material used, shape, coating
used if they meet performance requirements (72).
and maintenance.
Assumptions regarding homemade masks are that individual
Evidence on the effectiveness of non-medical (fabric)
makers only have access to common household fabrics and
masks
do not have access to test equipment to confirm target
performance (filtration and breathability). Figure 1 illustrates
A number of reviews have been identified on the
a multi-layer mask construction with examples of fabric
effectiveness of non-medical masks (151-156). One
options. Very porous materials, such as gauze, even with
systematic review (155) identified 12 studies and evaluated
multiple layers, may provide very low filtration efficiency
study quality. Ten were laboratory studies (157-166), and two
(147). Higher thread count fabrics offer improved filtration
reports were from a single randomized trial (72, 167). The
performance (169). Coffee filters, vacuum bags and materials
majority of studies were conducted before COVID-19
not meant for clothing should be avoided as they may contain
emerged or used laboratory generated particles to assess
injurious content when breathed in. Microporous films such
filtration efficacy. Overall, the reviews concluded that
as Gore-Tex are not recommended (170).
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Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
Factory-made non-medical masks: general considerations
for manufacturers
The non-medical mask, including all components and
Filtration and breathability
packaging, must be non-hazardous, non-toxic and child-
Filtration depends on the filtration efficiency (in %), the type
friendly (no exposed sharp edges, protruding hardware or
of challenge particle (oils, solids, droplets containing bacteria)
rough materials). Factory-made non-medical masks must be
and the particle size (see Table 1). Depending on the fabrics
made using a process that is certified to a quality management
used, filtration and breathability can complement or work
system (e.g., ISO 9001). Social accountability standards (e.g.,
against one another. The selection of material for droplet
SAI SA8000) for multiple aspects of fair labour practices,
filtration (barrier) is as important as breathability. Filtration
health and safety of the work force and adherence to
is dependent on the tightness of the weave, fibre or thread
UNICEF’s Children’s Rights and Business Principles are
diameter. Non-woven materials used for disposable masks are
strongly encouraged.
manufactured using processes to create polymer fibres that
are thinner than natural fibres such as cotton and that are held
Standards organizations’ performance criteria
together by partial melting.
Manufacturers producing masks with consistent standardized
Breathability is the difference in pressure across the mask and
performance can adhere to published, freely available
is typically reported in millibars (mbar) or Pascals (Pa) or,
guidance from several organizations including those from:
normalized to the cm2 in mbar/cm2 or Pa/cm2. Acceptable
the French Standardization Association (AFNOR Group),
breathability of a medical mask should be below 49 Pa/cm2.
The European Committee for Standardization (CEN), Swiss
For non-medical masks, an acceptable pressure difference,
National COVID-19 Task Force, the American Association
over the whole mask, should be below 60 Pa/cm2, with lower
of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC), the South
values indicating better breathability.
Korean Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS), the
Italian Standardization Body (UNI) and the Government of
Non-medical fabric masks consisting of two layers of
Bangladesh.
polypropylene spunbond and two layers of cotton have been
shown to meet the minimum requirements for droplet
Essential parameters
filtration and breathability of the CEN CWA 17553 guidance.
It is preferable not to select elastic material to make masks as
The essential parameters presented in this section are the
the mask material may be stretched over the face, resulting in
synthesis of the abovementioned regional and national
increased pore size and lower filtration through multiple
guidance. They include filtration, breathability and fit. Good
usage. Additionally, elastic fabrics are sensitive to washing at
performance is achieved when the three essential parameters
high temperatures thus may degrade over time.
are optimized at the preferred threshold (Figure 2).
Coating the fabric with compounds like wax may increase the
barrier and render the mask fluid resistant; however, such
coatings may inadvertently completely block the pores and
make the mask difficult to breathe through. In addition to
decreased breathability unfiltered air may more likely escape
Fit
the sides of the mask on exhalation. Coating is therefore not
recommended.
Valves that let unfiltered air escape the mask are discouraged
Optimal
and are an inappropriate feature for masks used for the
Performance
purpose of preventing transmission.
Filtration
Breathability
Figure 2. Illustration of the three essential parameters of
filtration, breathability and fit.
The summary of the three essential parameters can be found
in Table 1 and the additional performance considerations in
Table 2. The minimum threshold is the minimum acceptable
parameter, while the preferred threshold is the optimum.
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Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
Table 1. Essential parameters (minimum and preferred thresholds) for manufactured non-medical mask
Essential
Minimum threshold
Preferred threshold
Parameters
1 . Filtration*
1.1. filtration
efficiency
70% @ 3 micron
> 70%, without compromising breathability
1.2. Challenge
Solid: sodium chloride (NaCl), Talcum Based on availability
particle
powder, Holi powder, dolomite, Polystyrene
Latex spheres
Liquid: DEHS Di-Ethyl-Hexyl-Sebacat,
paraffin oil
1.3. Particle size
Choose either sizes:
Range of particle sizes
3 µm, 1 µm, or smaller
2. Breathability 2.1. Breathing
≤60 Pa/cm2
Adult: ≤ 40 Pa/cm2
resistance**
Paediatric: ≤ 20 Pa/cm2
2.2 Exhalation
Not recommended
N/A
valves
3. Fit
3.1. Coverage
Full coverage of nose and mouth, consistent, Same as current requirements
snug perimeter fit at the nose bridge, cheeks,
chin and lateral sides of the face; adequate
surface area to minimize breathing resistance
and minimize side leakage
3.2 Face seal
Not currently required
Seal as good as FFR (respirator):
Fit factor of 100 for N95
Maximum Total Inward Leakage of 25% (FFP1
requirement)
3.2. Sizing
Adult and child
Should cover from the bridge of the nose to below the
chin and cheeks on either side of the mouth
Sizing for adults and children (3-5, 6-9, 10-12, >12)
3.3Strap strength
> 44.5 N
* Smaller particle may result in lower filtration.
** High resistance can cause bypass of the mask. Unfiltered air will leak out the sides or around the nose if that is the easier path.
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Mask use in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance
Fit: shape and sizing
antimicrobial additives, only the outermost layer. In addition,
Fit is the third essential parameter, and takes into
antimicrobial fabric standards (e.g., ISO 18184, ISO 20743,
consideration coverage, seal, sizing, and strap strength. Fit of
AATCC TM100, AATCC 100) are generally slow acting.
masks currently is not defined by any standard except for the
The inhibition on microbial growth may take full effect after
anthropometric considerations of facial dimensions (ISO/TS
2- or 24-hour contact time depending on the standard. The
16976-2) or simplified to height mask (South Korean
standards have generally been used for athletic apparel and
standard for KF-AD). It is important to ensure that the mask
substantiate claims of odour control performance. These
can be held in place comfortably with as little adjustment of
standards are not appropriate for non-medical cloth masks
the elastic bands or ties as possible.
and may provide a false sense of protection from infectious
agents. If claims are maid, manufacturers should specify
which standard supports antimicrobial performance, the
Mask shapes typically include flat-fold or duckbill and are
challenge organism and the contact time.
designed to fit closely over the nose, cheeks and chin of the
Volatile additives are discouraged as these may pose a health
wearer. Snug fitting designs are suggested as they limit leaks
risk when inhaled repeatedly during wear. Certification
of unfiltered air escaping from the mask (148). Ideally the
according to organizations including OEKO-TEX (Europe)
mask should not have contact with the lips, unless
or SEK (Japan), and additives complying with REACH
hydrophobic fabrics are used in at least one layer of the mask
(Europe) or the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA,
(148). Leaks where unfiltered air moves in and out of the
United States of America) indicate that textile additives are
mask may be attributed to the size and shape of the mask
safe and added at safe levels.
(171).
Table 2. Additional parameters for manufactured non-
Additional considerations
medical masks
Optional parameters to consider in addition to the essential
Additional parameters
Minimum thresholds
performance parameters include if reusable, biodegradability
for disposal masks, antimicrobial performance where
If reusable, number of wash 5 cycles
applicable and chemical safety (see Table 2).
cycles
Non-medical masks intended to be reusable should include
Disposal
Reusable
instructions for washing and must be washed a minimum of
If biodegradable (CFC-
five cycles, implying initial performance is maintained after
BIO), according to UNI
each wash cycle.
EN 13432, UNI EN 14995
Advanced fabrics may be biodegradable or compostable at
Antimicrobial (bacteria,
ISO 18184 (virus)
the end of service life, according to a recognized standard
virus, fungus) performance
process (e.g., UNI EN 13432, UNI EN 14995 and UNI / PdR
ISO 20743 (bacteria)
79).
ISO 13629 (fungus)
Manufacturers sometimes claim their NM masks have
AATCC TM100 (bacteria)
antimicrobial performance. Antimicrobial performance may
be due to coatings or additives to the fabric fibres. Treated
Chemical safety
Comply with REACH
fabrics must not come into direct contact with mucous
regulation, including
membranes; the innermost fabric should not be treated with
inhalation safety
© World Health Organization 2020. Some rights reserved. This work is available under t
he CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO licence.
WHO reference number: WHO/2019-nCoV/IPC_Masks/2020.5
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